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Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine II, Klinikum der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany
1 Department of Clinical Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cambridge, UK
2 Steroid Research Unit, Center of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Germany
3 Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
4 Medizinische Klinik - Innenstadt, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
(Requests for offprints should be addressed to F Beuschlein; Email: beuschlein{at}medizin.ukl.uni-freiburg.de)
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Only recently, murine adrenal tumor models have provided evidence that luteinizing hormone (LH) and the transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß) ligand family members inhibin and activin play opposite roles in adrenocortical hormone secretion and cellular proliferation (Rilianawati et al. 1998, Kero et al. 2000, Beuschlein et al. 2003). Transgenic overexpression of LH induces adrenal steroidogenesis (Kero et al. 2000) and high levels of gonadotropins are required for the induction of adrenal tumorigenesis in different mouse models (Matzuk et al. 1994, Rilianawati et al. 1998). One of these models, which has provided a significant amount of information on the mechanistic roles of inhibin and activin in the adrenal, is the inhibin null (Inh–/–) mouse, which spontaneously develops activin-secreting gonadal tumors and adrenocortical carcinomas upon gonadectomy (GDX) (Matzuk et al. 1994). As we have demonstrated, the adrenal phenotype in Inh–/– mice is indicative of x-zone growth dysregulation. Development of activin-secreting gonadal tumors in Inh–/– mice is accompanied by a decrease in adrenal weight and regression of the x-zone. Activin, which plays a critical role as a paracrine and autocrine factor regulating cellular growth and differentiation, has been demonstrated to induce apoptosis and suppress proliferation in the human (Spencer et al. 1992, 1999) and murine adrenal cortex (Beuschlein et al. 2003). The ultimate cause of this regression in the murine adrenal cortex is the distinct x-zonal expression pattern of activin receptor subunits and the intracellular mediator Smad-2, which results in a particular responsiveness of the x-zone to activin. As a result, high levels of activin induce apoptosis specifically in the adrenal x-zone, thus preventing adrenal tumorigenesis in the presence of activin-secreting gonadal tumors. Conversely, the surgical removal of activin-secreting gonadal tumors in Inh–/– is followed by unopposed x-zone growth and ultimately by the development of adrenal tumors (Beuschlein et al. 2003).
The CE/J strain of mice, which bases on the extreme dilution strain established and maintained since 1920, has been characterized on a morphological basis in the 1940s. Intriguingly, the CE/J strain shares several phenotypical similarities with the Inh–/– mouse. Like Inh–/– mice, the CE/J strain is characterized by the occurrence of adrenocortical carcinoma when GDX is performed early in life (Woolley & Little 1945). In addition, morphological studies on accessory reproductive organs in gonadectomized CE/J mice have provided indirect evidence for the secretion of sex steroids from the adrenal tumors (Woolley & Little 1946a). Since adrenal tumors in gonadectomized Inh–/– mice secrete sex steroids (Beuschlein et al. 2003), the adrenal phenotype in CE/J mice points towards a dysregulation of x-zone growth after GDX as the basis of adrenal tumor growth. However, based on the early morphological studies (Woolley & Little 1946b) and recent reports on similar phenotypes in other inbred mouse strains (Bielinska et al. 2003, 2005), it seems likely that the precursor of tumor cells in CE/J mice are located in the sub-capsular zone of the adrenal cortex.
The adrenal cortex is a dynamic organ in which senescing cells are constantly replaced by newly differentiated daughter cells. According to the cell migration model, each zone of the adrenal cortex is derived from a common pool of progenitor cells located in the periphery of the cortex, which migrates centripetally and populates the inner cortical zones upon differentiation (Belloni et al. 1978, Spencer et al. 1999). The characteristic zonation of the adrenal cortex in cellular compartments with distinct functional properties is tightly controlled to ensure structural plasticity of the adrenal cortex and to maintain hormonal homeostasis. We hypothesized that dysregulation of adrenal stem cell proliferation and differentiation could be the basis of adrenal tumorigenesis in CE/J mice and undertook a detailed morphological and functional characterization of the adrenal phenotype of these mice.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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All experiments involving animals were performed in accordance with institutionally approved and current animal care guidelines. Male CE/J mice were obtained by breeding mice of the inbred CE/J background (Jackson Immuno-Research Laboratories, West Grove, PA, USA), while Inh–/– mice were generated by breeding of heterozygous animals (Inh+/–) on an extensively outbred strain. Genotyping was performed as described earlier (Matzuk et al. 1994). All animals were maintained under standard conditions of temperature (22 °C) and lighting (12 h light:12 h darkness) and ad libitum with food and water. To obtain a time-course of the testicular and adrenal phenotype of gonadectomized and non-gonadectomized CE/J mice, a group of mice (n = 3–4) was euthanized at 8, 14, 20, 26, 38, and 44 weeks of age, while another group of mice (n = 3–4) was gonadectomized at 2 weeks of age following the standard procedures and euthanized at the same time points. Accordingly, Inh–/– and wild-type controls were gonadectomized at 2–4 weeks of age and euthanized at 19–27 weeks. Non-gonadectomized controls of each genotype were euthanized at 9 weeks of age. Trunk blood for hormonal measurements was taken within 60 s after initial mouse handling and adrenals and testes were collected. Following microdissection, adrenal and testicular weights were measured and the tissues were snap frozen for protein/RNA extraction or immersed in para-formaldehyde (PFA) or Bouin’s fixative for histological studies.
Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR and real-time PCR
Individual adrenals from 44-week-old gonadectomized and non-gonadectomized CE/J mice (n = 2 in each group) as well as the adrenals of the non-GDX and GDX Inh–/–knockout and Inh+/+ controls (n = 2 in each group) were used for RNA extraction using the Qiagen RNA mini kit (Qiagen) following the instructions of the manufacturer. cDNA was created from 1.0 µg of total RNA using a reverse transcription kit (Promega). Aliquots of the cDNA samples were subjected to the subsequent PCR for semi- and to real-time PCR for quantitative measurements of mRNA levels. RT-PCR and real-time PCR amplifications were performed with the corresponding primer pairs, as given in Table 1
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Real-time PCR was performed using the FastStart DNA MasterPlus SYBR Green I reaction mix and the FastStart Taq DNA Polymerase (Roche) or the SYBR Premix Ex Taq (Cambrex, Baltimore, MD, USA) in an appropriate LightCycler. The real-time PCR conditions started with a preincubation at 95 °C for 10 min, followed by the amplification of 40–45 cycles at 95 °C for 10 s, the annealing temperature (primer dependent as given in Table 1
) for 6 s and the extension at 72 °C, at which the time is calculated by the product in bp divided by 25 (Roche) or was run as a three-step PCR following the instructions of the manufacturer (Cambrex).
The melting curve analysis was performed between 65 and 95°C (0.1 °C/s) to determine the Tm of the amplified product and to exclude undesired primer dimers. Furthermore, the products were run on a 1% agarose gel to verify the amplified product.
Quantification was adjusted using the house-keeping gene ß2-microglobulin as well as 18 s rRNA. In both instances, comparable results were obtained. To facilitate overall comparison, expression levels of the particular genes were set as 100% for non-GDX control animals (non-GDX CE/J mice and non-GDX Inh+/+ respectively), even though in some cases, the expression levels were not distinct from the value of the water-negative control.
Histology, immunohistochemistry, and in situ hybridization
Adrenal glands and testes were rapidly dissected and placed in 4% PFA for 3 h and Bouin’s fixative overnight respectively. Tissues for histochemistry (n = 3 per group) were dehydrated, embedded in paraffin, sectioned, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) following the standard protocols. H&E stained adrenal sections were examined with a standard light microscope using 50x magnification. Areas of the total cortex, the adrenal x-zone, and tumor areas were quantified using the Spot software (Diagnostic Instruments, Sterling Heights, MI, USA) as described elsewhere (Beuschlein et al. 2003). In brief, to ensure a reliable comparison between the specimens, three adjacent sections from the middle portion of each individual adrenal were examined. In order to control for the spherical shape of the mouse adrenal gland, the x-zonal area and tumor area were normalized for the total cortical area and were expressed as the x-zone/total cortical area ratio and tumor/total area ratio, respectively.
For proliferative cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and CYP17 immunohistochemistry, paraffin-embedded sections were rehydrated, blocked with 0.3% H2O2 in methanol for 10 min, and incubated with blocking buffer for 15 min. PCNA was immunolocalized overnight at 4 °C by means of a rabbit polyclonal antibody (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA, USA) in a dilution of 1:100 in blocking buffer containing 3% BSA (Roche), 5% goat serum (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories), and 0.5% Tween 20, whereas CYP17 (courtesy of Dr Anita Payne, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA) was diluted 1:200 in blocking buffer. After rinsing for 15 min in PBS, secondary antibody (goat antirabbit biotinylated IgG (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA, USA)) was applied for 30 min at room temperature. For the visualization of the bound CYP17 antibody, Vectastain Elite ABC system (Vector Laboratories) and Sigma Fast diaminobenzidine (Sigma) were used. Bound PCNA antibody was detected using the Santa Cruz Immunocruz Kit (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Presence of apoptotic cells was assayed using a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) detection kit (Promega) as recommended by the manufacturer.
PCNA and TUNEL stained adrenal sections from both groups were examined with a standard light microscope using 400x magnification. Stained cell nuclei within the zona glomerulosa and outer zona fasciculata of three independent sections from two different animals per group were counted under standardized conditions. Cell counts are expressed as cell number/high power fields (HPF).
To analyze the mRNA expression of CYP17 and LH-receptor (LH-R), the paraffin-embedded sections were subjected to in situ hybridization as described previously (Beuschlein et al. 2004).
Plasma hormone measurements
Plasma steroid levels (dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and testosterone) were measured using stable isotope dilution/gas chromatography–mass spectrometry as described earlier (Wudy et al. 2002).
Statistical analysis
All results are expressed as mean ± S.E.M. Statistical comparisons were analyzed by ANOVA and Fisher’s protective least significant difference test. Statistical significance is defined as P < 0.05 and is indicated as a star (*) in the figures.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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As mice of the inbred CE/J strain have been reported to develop adrenal tumors upon GDX (Woolley & Little 1946b), they share phenotypical similarities with Inh–/– mice. Another characteristic of Inh–/– is the spontaneous development of activin-secreting gonadal tumors that result in the early death of the animals due to a wasting-like syndrome (Zajicek et al. 1986, Matzuk et al. 1994). However, unlike Inh–/– mice, testicular weight in CE/J mice did not change substantially during lifetime (8 weeks, 112.7 ± 5.0 mg; 14 weeks, 108.3 ± 0.7 mg; 20 weeks, 111.5 ± 5.2 mg; 26 weeks, 126.0 ± 11.0 mg; 38 weeks, 127.3 ± 7.6 mg; 44 weeks, 125.3 ± 3.8 mg; Fig. 1, lower panel) and no histological evidence of testicular tumor growth was detectable in anyof the animals (Fig. 1, upper panel). CE/J animals did not suffer from wasting syndrome and premature death (body weight: 8 weeks, 19.3 ± 0.5 g; 14 weeks, 22.7 ± 0.5 g; 20 weeks, 25.0 ± 1.0 g; 26 weeks, 30.0 ± 0.9 g; 38 weeks, 25.6 ± 0.7 g; 44 weeks, 28.3 ± 2.5 g; Fig. 1, lower panel) consistent with the lack of elevated gonadal activin.
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Histological examination of adrenals from non-gonadectomized (w/o GDX) male CE/J mice proved the expected x-zone regression after the onset of puberty with a loss of the x-zone after 8 weeks of age (x-zone area/cortical area: 8 weeks, 21.6 ± 3.7%; 14–44 weeks, 0.0 ± 0.0%; Fig. 2A–E, L). In contrast, GDX was accompanied by a significantly larger x-zone area, compared to non-gonadectomized animals of the same age, that decreased gradually over a longer period of time (8 weeks, 29.3 ± 0.9%, P = 0.011; 14 weeks, 32.4 ± 3.7%, P < 0.0001; 20 weeks, 27.4 ± 1.0%, P < 0.0001; 26 weeks, 16.9 ± 1.6%, P < 0.0001; 38 weeks, 9.1 ± 1.3%, P = 0.031; 44 weeks, 6.7 ± 1.4%, P = 0.067; Fig. 2F–J, L). In addition, x-zone regression in gonadectomized animals was accompanied by the appearance of densely packed cell nests in the sub-capsular adrenal cortex that increased in size over time and eventually developed into a tumor (tumor area/cortical area: 20 weeks, 4.6 ± 0.6%; 26 weeks, 7.0 ± 0.4%; 38 weeks, 19.6 ± 0.4%; 44 weeks, 31.5 ± 2.1%; Fig. 2H–J). These results demonstrate that GDX-induced adrenocortical tumors in CE/J mice are situated within the sub-capsular zone, unlike adrenal tumors in Inh–/– mice, which are situated within or contiguous to the x-zone. Overall, GDX resulted in a small, albeit significant higher adrenal weight at each time point (8 weeks, 5.8 ± 0.4 mg, P = 0.02; 14 weeks, 6.6 ± 0.3 mg, P = 0.0008; 20 weeks, 6.4 ± 0.0 mg, P = 0.009; 26 weeks, 6.7 ± 0.7 mg, P = 0.003; 38 weeks, 8.5 ± 0.6 mg, P < 0.0001; 44 weeks, 8.8 ± 0.5 mg, P < 0.0001) as compared to non-gonadectomized animals (8 weeks, 4.4 ± 0.5 mg; 14 weeks, 4.6 ± 0.4 mg; 20 weeks, 4.8 ± 0.2 mg; 26 weeks, 4..2 ± 0.2 mg; 38 weeks, 4.7 ± 0.1 mg; 44 weeks, 4.8 ± 0.2 mg; Fig. 2K). Moreover, tumor -development in gonadectomized mice was accompanied by a significant increase in adrenal weight in comparison to earlier time points (adrenal weight 8 weeks, 5.8 ± 0.4 mg vs 38 weeks, 8.5 ± 0.6 mg, P = 0.0003 and 44 weeks, 8.8 ± 0.5 mg, P < 0.0001 respectively).
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To further define the underlying growth dysregulation in the adrenal cortices of gonadectomized CE/J mice and in an attempt to delineate the cellular origin of the developing adrenal tumors, we determined the number and distribution of proliferating and apoptotic cells in adrenals from non-gonadectomized (w/o GDX) and gonadectomized (GDX) CE/J mice. In accordance with the observed tumor development in the sub-capsular zone, PCNA-positive cells were mainly restricted to the sub-capsular cells (Fig. 3C and D) with a significant higher number of proliferating cells (20 weeks, 200.3 ± 16.6; 38 weeks, 810.0 ± 72.7) in comparison to non-gonadectomized animals (20 weeks, 41.7 ± 4.6, P = 0.0008; 38 weeks, 56.0 ± 11.2, P < 0.0001; Fig. 3A and B). In contrast, the number of apoptotic cells per high power field was not different after GDX (20 weeks, 10.0 ± 1.5; 38 weeks, 8.7 ± 7.2; Fig. 3G and H) as compared to non-gonadectomized animals at these time points (20 weeks, 7.7 ± 2.7, P = 0.74; 38 weeks, 3.3 ± 0.7, P = 0.47; Fig. 3E and F). Intriguingly, the tumor cell population which is characterized by high proliferation showed virtually no apoptotic cells (Fig. 3H, insert). Taken together, these results indicate that GDX is followed by high proliferation of the sub-capsular cell population, which results in the unopposed growth of tumor cells.
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To further define the functional properties of adrenal tumors in gonadectomized CE/J mice, we determined the expression pattern of a variety of marker genes. Interestingly, adrenal tumors in CE/J mice express a distinct pattern of steroidogenic enzymes, including 17
-hydroxylase (P450c17; non-GDX 100.0 ± 7.1% vs GDX 3756.3 ± 75.4%, P < 0.0001) and aromatase (P450c19; non-GDX 100.0 ± 31.7% vs GDX 1800.0 ± 200.0%, P = 0.001), peptide hormone such as Mullerian-inhibiting substances (MISs; P = 0.0012), and hormone receptors including LH-R (P = 0.0008) and MIS receptor (P < 0.0001) that otherwise define gonadal endocrine function. In addition, transcription factors such as GATA-4 (P = 0.0005), Wilms tumor gene-1 (WT-1; P < 0.0001), and steriodogenic factor-1 (SF-1; P = 0.0029) were significantly up-regulated after GDX, while other transcription factors such as FOG-1 (P < 0.0001) and GATA-6 (P = 0.0004) were down-regulated. In contrast, Sox-8 and DAX-1 did not significantly different between the groups (Fig. 4A and B).
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, a similar expression profile was present in adrenal tumors from gonadectomized Inh–/– animals with significant increase of GATA-4, MIS receptor, CYP17, and CYP19. In contrast, no significant changes in the expression pattern of these genes were evident in gonadectomized wild-type controls, indicating that in addition to GDX, transcriptional activation of these genes is dependent on adrenal tumorigenesis.
To localize some of the up-regulated genes, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry were performed, which demonstrated expression of P450c17 and LH-R expression restricted to the tumor cells (Fig. 5C and I) and lack of expression in adjacent areas of morphologically normal adrenal cortex (Fig. 5B and H). To investigate the functional significance of the expression pattern of steroidogenic enzymes, hormonal profiles of gonadectomized CE/J mice were determined. The detected increase of the adrenal androgen DHEA (Fig. 5J) as well as testosterone (Fig. 5K) during the time-course experiment in gonadectomized CE/J mice is in line with the presence of functional active 17-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase activity in adrenal tumors.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The physiologic role of the murine adrenal x-zone, which becomes evident histologically at 10–14 days of age and subsequently begins to degenerate in males, coinciding with sexual maturity (Howard-Miller 1928), is not defined. In accordance with earlier findings demonstrating prevention of x-zone degeneration in male mice by castration (Howard-Miller 1928, Beuschlein et al. 2003), GDX delays x-zone degeneration and induces adrenal tumor formation in both strains of mice. In addition, at later time points, when adrenal tumors develop, the x-zone cross-sectional area gradually decreases, indicating that the development of adrenal tumors might directly or indirectly affect x-zone growth. Indeed, in Inh–/– mice, the pathological regression of the x-zone is induced by high levels of tumoral activin that result in selective apoptosis of x-zone due to their unique expression of activin receptors and the downstream effector Smad-2 (Beuschlein et al. 2003). In contrast, adrenal tumors in CE/J mice do not display elevated activin mRNA levels (data not shown), indicating that in this mouse, model high levels of activin are not required for the observed tumor-induced x-zone regression. In fact, the role of activin for physiological x-zone regression during puberty in male mice and during first pregnancy in female animals remains unproven. Other potential candidates involved in this process include sex steroids and gonadotropins (Howard-Miller 1928). Since the murine adrenal cortex is deprived of a functional equivalent of the zona reticularis and lacks expression of P450c17, the mouse adrenal does not secrete adrenal androgens. However, adrenal tumors in CE/J mice not only express steroid enzymes required for sex-steroid production, but also adrenal tumor development is accompanied by increasing levels of serum DHEA and testosterone. Thus, sex steroids secreted by the adrenal tumors or secondary suppression of gonadotropins could be responsible for x-zone regression in these animals.
During development, numerous transcriptional cascades are utilized to ensure tight control over cellular proliferation and proper spatio-temporal expression of target genes. A gonadal specific target gene which is expressed in adrenal tumors of CE/J mice is the Mullerian-inhibiting substance (MIS), a glycoprotein dimer that–like inhibin and activin–belongs to the TGF-ß super-family (Lee & Donahoe 1993). Secretion of MIS by fetal sertoli cells is essential for normal male sex differentiation, since it induces regression of the Mullerian ducts in the developing male embryo. The specific expression in sertoli and granulosa cells has provided even diagnostic usefulness of the MIS gene for sub-classification of gonadal tumors (Rey et al. 2000). The gonadal restricted expression of the MIS gene requires a specific combination of transcription factors, including the zinc finger factor GATA-4 and the nuclear receptor SF-1, as well as Sox-9 and WT-1 (De Santa Barbara et al. 1998, Nachtigal et al. 1998, Viger et al. 1998).
WT-1 is a zinc finger-containing transcription factor, which has been implicated in the development of the indifferent gonad prior to sexual differentiation as well as in the etiology of certain neoplasia. Interestingly, GATA-4 together with WT-1 is up-regulated in adrenal tumors from gonadectomized CE/J mice. Thus, adrenal tumors in gonadectomized CE/J mice resemble the expression pattern of transcription factors required for the expression of MIS in sertoli cells. In vivo and in vitro data suggest a pathway in which the products of the WT-1 and Lhx-9 genes activate expression of SF-1 and thus mediate early gonadogenesis (Wilhelm & Englert 2002). As SF-1 levels are slightly up-regulated in adrenals from gonadectomized CE/J mice, these data are in line with the concept of transcriptional activation of the SF-1 promoter by WT-1 as part of the dedifferentiation in these adrenal tumors.
The friend of GATA proteins (FOG: FOG-1 and FOG-2) can act as either enhancers or repressors of GATA transcriptional activity, depending on the cell and promoter context. It has been reported that the FOG proteins are co-expressed with GATA factors in testicular cells in which they differentially repress the promoter activities of several GATA-dependent target genes (Robert et al. 2002). Intriguingly, FOG-1 expression is down-regulated in adrenal tumors from gonadectomized CE/J mice, in line with the concept of loss of repression of GATA-dependent transcriptional activation of target genes such as LH-R, CYP17, and CYP19 (Bielinska et al. 2003, 2005).
Although CE/J mice carry a polymorphism in the gene encoding SF-1 (SF-1S172, data not shown), which has been associated with lower steroidogenic capacity and possibly higher susceptibly of GDX-induced adrenal tumorigenesis (Bielinska et al. 2003), it remains unclear from the data presented herein, which steps are the initial dysregulated events that induce adrenal tumor formation in these animals. GDX induces both a decrease of gonadal hormones (including inhibin and sex steroids) and an increase of gonadotropins (including LH). Chronically elevated levels of LH have been demonstrated to induce adrenal LH-R expression (Kero et al. 2000, Beuschlein et al. 2003) and boost adrenal tumor growth (Beuschlein et al. 2003, Mikola et al. 2003), depending on the strain background or targeted genetic alterations. As we could demonstrate, activin, which is secreted from gonadal tumors in Inh–/– mice, leads to the induction of x-zone apoptosis, thus preventing the growth of x-zone derived adrenal tumors (Beuschlein et al. 2003). Since CE/J animals are not prone to spontaneous gonadal tumor growth, activin as a repressor of adrenal tumor growth is not likely to play a similar key role in the pathophysiology of CE/J mice. However, high levels of LH might be sufficient to cause the adrenal phenotype in CE/J mice, as seen after GDX, a hypothesis which will be tested by introducing transgenic LH overexpression on the CE/J background.
In conclusion, the dysregulation of adrenal growth in gonadectomized CE/J, DBA/2J (Bielinska et al. 2003), nude mice (Bielinska et al. 2005), and Inh–/– mice (Beuschlein et al. 2003) is accompanied by a differentiation defect that drives adrenocortical cell differentiation towards a gonadal phenotype. The LH dependency of adrenal tumorigenesis in these tumor models is reminiscent of the clinical situation in patients with chronically elevated levels of proopiomelano-cortin peptides due to steroid hydroxylase deficiencies, who develop adrenal rest tumors in the gonads (Stikkelbroeck et al. 2001). It is tempting to speculate that the ability of the adrenal stem cell population to mimic gonadal endocrine function might reflect the common embryological origin of adrenocortical and gonadal cells from adjacent areas of the urogenital ridge during early development (Smith & Mackay 1991). In fact, expression of P450c17 has been demonstrated in a specific spatio-temporal pattern in a distinct cell population of the developing mouse adrenal (Keeney et al. 1995), highlighting the concept of closely related progenitor cells in adrenal and gonadal development.
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Acknowledgements |
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Funding |
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References |
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Received in final form 6 March 2006
Accepted 20 March 2006
Made available online as an Accepted Preprint 21 April 2006
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