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Introduction: Retinoic acid and thyroid hormones regulate gene expression by binding to intracellular proteins that are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily of transcription factors. Members of this gene family activate transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences, termed response elements, that are generally located in the vicinity of target genes. Thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) and retinoic acid receptors (RARs) can exert either of two effects on the transcription of target genes. In the absence of ligand, both the RAR and TR strongly repress transcription from promoters to which they bind. In the presence of an activating ligand, this repressive effect is relieved and transcription is markedly stimulated. As a result, a very large dynamic range in the level of transcriptional activity can be achieved. Recognition of DNA response elements by nuclear receptors is mediated by a central, highly conserved DNA binding domain, while ligand binding, dimerization and transcriptional activation

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